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7 Investments

Investment income

Net investment income by source (excluding unit-linked and with-profit business) was as follows:

Dividends received from investments accounted for using the equity method were USD 170 million and USD 170 million for 2017 and 2018, respectively.

Share in earnings of equity-accounted investees included impairments of the carrying amount of equity-accounted investees of USD 46 million for 2017.

Realised gains and losses

Realised gains and losses for fixed income securities, equity securities and other investments (excluding unit-linked and with-profit business) were as follows:

Net realised/unrealised gains/losses on insurance-related activities included impairments of USD 11 million and USD 7 million for 2017 and 2018, respectively.

Investment result – unit-linked and with-profit business

For unit-linked contracts, the investment risk is borne by the policyholder. For with-profit contracts, the majority of the investment risk is also borne by the policyholder, although there are certain guarantees that limit the downside risk for the policyholder, and a certain proportion of the returns may be retained by the Group (typically 10%).

Net investment result on unit-linked and with-profit business credited to policyholders was as follows:

Impairment on fixed income securities related to credit losses

Other-than-temporary impairments for debt securities are bifurcated between credit and non-credit components, with the credit component recognised through earnings and the non-credit component recognised in other comprehensive income. The credit component of other-than-temporary impairments is defined as the difference between a security’s amortised cost basis and the present value of expected cash flows. Methodologies for measuring the credit component of impairment are aligned to market observer forecasts of credit performance drivers. Management believes that these forecasts are representative of median market expectations.

For securitised products, cash flow projection analysis is conducted by integrating forward-looking evaluation of collateral performance drivers, including default rates, prepayment rates and loss severities and deal-level features, such as credit enhancement and prioritisation among tranches for payments of principal and interest. Analytics are differentiated by asset class, product type and security-level differences in historical and expected performance. For corporate bonds and hybrid debt instruments, an expected loss approach based on default probabilities and loss severities expected in the current and forecasted economic environment is used for securities identified as credit-impaired to project probability-weighted cash flows. Expected cash flows resulting from these analyses are discounted, and the present value is compared to the amortised cost basis to determine the credit component of other-than-temporary impairments.

A reconciliation of other-than-temporary impairments related to credit losses recognised in earnings was as follows:

Investments available-for-sale

Amortised cost or cost, estimated fair values and other-than-temporary impairments of fixed income securities classified as available-for-sale as of 31 December were as follows:

The “Other-than-temporary impairments recognised in other comprehensive income” column includes only securities with a credit-related loss recognised in earnings. Subsequent recovery in fair value of securities previously impaired in other comprehensive income is also presented in the “Other-than-temporary impairments recognised in other comprehensive income” column.

Unrealised losses on securities available-for-sale

The following table shows the fair value and unrealised losses of the Group’s fixed income securities, aggregated by investment category and length of time that individual securities were in a continuous unrealised loss position as of 31 December 2017 and 2018.

As of 31 December 2017, USD 40 million of the gross unrealised loss on equity securities available-for-sale relates to declines in value for less than 12 months and USD 7 million to declines in value for more than 12 months.

Maturity of fixed income securities available-for-sale

The amortised cost or cost and estimated fair values of investments in fixed income securities available-for-sale by remaining maturity are shown below. Fixed maturity investments are assumed not to be called for redemption prior to the stated maturity date. As of 31 December 2017 and 2018, USD 17 742 million and USD 18 601 million, respectively, of fixed income securities available-for-sale were callable.

Investments trading and at fair value through earnings

The carrying amounts of fixed income securities classified as trading and equity securities classified as trading and at fair value through earnings (excluding unit-linked and with-profit business) as of 31 December were as follows:

Investments held for unit-linked and with-profit business

The carrying amounts of investments held for unit-linked and with-profit business as of 31 December were as follows:

Mortgage, policy and other loans and investment real estate

As of 31 December, the carrying and respective fair values of investments in mortgage, policy and other loans and investment real estate (excluding unit-linked and with-profit business) were as follows:

Depreciation expense related to investment real estate was USD 49 million and USD 57 million for 2017 and 2018, respectively. Accumulated depreciation on investment real estate totalled USD 585 million and USD 609 million as of 31 December 2017 and 2018, respectively.

Substantially all mortgage, policy and other loan receivables are secured by buildings, land or the underlying policies.

Other financial assets and liabilities by measurement category

As of 31 December 2017 and 2018, “Other invested assets” and “Accrued expenses and other liabilities” by measurement category were as follows:

Offsetting of derivatives, financial assets and financial liabilities

Offsetting of derivatives, financial assets and financial liabilities as of 31 December was as follows:

Collateral pledged or received between two counterparties with a master netting arrangement in place, but not subject to balance sheet netting, is disclosed at fair value. The fair values represent the gross carrying value amounts at the reporting date for each financial instrument received or pledged by the Group. Management believes that master netting agreements provide for legally enforceable set-off in the event of default, which substantially reduces credit exposure. Upon occurrence of an event of default, the non-defaulting party may set off the obligation against collateral received regardless if it has been offset on the balance sheet prior to the defaulting event. The net amounts of the financial assets and liabilities presented on the balance sheet were recognised in “Other invested assets”, “Investments for unit-linked and with-profit business” and “Accrued expenses and other liabilities”.

Assets pledged

As of 31 December 2017 and 2018, investments with a carrying value of USD 7 384 million and USD 5 776 million, respectively, were on deposit with regulatory agencies in accordance with local requirements, of which USD 147 million and USD 277 million, respectively, were cash and cash equivalents. As of 31 December 2017 and 2018, investments with a carrying value of USD 12 209 million and USD 12 959 million, respectively, were placed on deposit or pledged to secure certain reinsurance liabilities, including pledged investments in subsidiaries, of which USD 247 million and USD 404 million, respectively, were cash and cash equivalents. Cash and cash equivalents pledged include some instances where cash is legally restricted from usage or withdrawal.

As of 31 December 2017 and 2018, securities of USD 15 740 million and USD 15 850 million, respectively, were transferred to third parties under securities lending transactions and repurchase agreements on a fully collateralised basis. Corresponding liabilities of USD 989 million and USD 941 million, respectively, were recognised in accrued expenses and other liabilities for the obligation to return collateral that the Group has the right to sell or repledge.

As of 31 December 2017 and 2018, a real estate portfolio with a carrying value of USD 192 million and USD 191 million, respectively, served as collateral for a credit facility, allowing the Group to withdraw funds up to CHF 500 million.

Collateral accepted which the Group has the right to sell or repledge

As of 31 December 2017 and 2018, the fair value of the equity securities, government and corporate debt securities received as collateral was USD 7 476 million and USD 4 239 million, respectively. Of this, the amount that was sold or repledged as of 31 December 2017 and 2018 was USD 1 981 million and USD 1 721 million, respectively. The sources of the collateral are securities borrowing, reverse repurchase agreements and derivative transactions.

Recognised gross liability for the obligation to return collateral that the Group has the right to sell or repledge

As of 31 December 2017 and 2018, the gross amounts of liabilities related to repurchase agreements and securities lending by the class of securities transferred to third parties and by the remaining maturity are shown below. The liabilities are recognised for the obligation to return collateral that the Group has the right to sell or repledge.

The programme is structured in a conservative manner within a clearly defined risk framework. Yield enhancement is conducted on a non-cash basis, thereby taking no re-investment risk.