8 Fair value disclosures

Fair value, as defined by the Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures Topic, is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.

The Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures Topic requires all assets and liabilities that are measured at fair value to be categorised within the fair value hierarchy. This three-level hierarchy is based on the observability of the inputs used in the fair value measurement. The levels of the fair value hierarchy are defined as follows:

Level 1 inputs are quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities that the Group has the ability to access. Level 1 inputs are the most persuasive evidence of fair value and are to be used whenever possible.

Level 2 inputs are market-based inputs that are directly or indirectly observable, but not considered level 1 quoted prices. Level 2 inputs consist of (i) quoted prices for similar assets or liabilities in active markets; (ii) quoted prices for identical assets or liabilities in non-active markets (e.g. markets which have few transactions and where prices are not current or price quotations vary substantially); (iii) inputs other than quoted prices that are observable (e.g. interest rates, yield curves, volatilities, prepayment speeds, credit risks and default rates); and (iv) inputs derived from, or corroborated by, observable market data.

Level 3 inputs are unobservable inputs. These inputs reflect the Group’s own assumptions about market pricing using the best internal and external information available.

The types of instruments valued, based on unadjusted quoted market prices in active markets, include most US government and sovereign obligations, active listed equities and most money market securities. Such instruments are generally classified within level 1 of the fair value hierarchy.

The types of instruments that trade in markets that are not considered to be active, but are valued based on quoted market prices, broker or dealer quotations, or alternative pricing sources with reasonable levels of price transparency, include most government agency securities, investment-grade corporate bonds, certain mortgage- and asset-backed products, less liquid listed equities, and state, municipal and provincial obligations. Such instruments are generally classified within level 2 of the fair value hierarchy.

Exchange-traded derivative instruments typically fall within level 1 or level 2 of the fair value hierarchy depending on whether they are considered to be actively traded or not.

Certain financial instruments are classified within level 3 of the fair value hierarchy because they trade infrequently and therefore have little or no price transparency. Such instruments include private equity, less liquid corporate debt securities and certain asset-backed securities. Certain over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives trade in less liquid markets with limited pricing information, and the determination of fair value for these derivatives is inherently more difficult. Such instruments are classified within level 3 of the fair value hierarchy. Pursuant to the election of the fair value option, the Group classifies certain liabilities for life and health policy benefits in level 3 of the fair value hierarchy. When appropriate, valuations are adjusted for various factors such as liquidity, bid/offer spreads, and credit considerations. Such adjustments are generally based on available market evidence. In the absence of such evidence, management’s best estimate is used.

The fair values of assets are adjusted to incorporate the counterparty risk of non-performance. Similarly, the fair values of liabilities reflect the risk of non-performance of the Group, captured by the Group’s credit spread. These valuation adjustments from assets and liabilities measured at fair value using significant unobservable inputs are recognised in net realised gains and losses. For 2016, these adjustments were not material. Whenever the underlying assets or liabilities are reported in a specific business segment, the valuation adjustment is allocated accordingly. Valuation adjustments not attributable to any business segment are reported in Group items.

In certain situations, the Group uses inputs to measure the fair value of asset or liability positions that fall into different levels of the fair value hierarchy. In these situations, the Group will determine the appropriate level based on the lowest level input that is significant to the determination of the fair value.

Valuation techniques

US government securities typically have quoted market prices in active markets and are categorised as level 1 instruments in the fair value hierarchy. Non-US government holdings are generally classified as level 2 instruments and are valued on the basis of the quotes provided by pricing services, which are subject to the Group’s pricing validation reviews and pricing vendor challenge process. Valuations provided by pricing vendors are generally based on the actual trade information as substantially all of the Group’s non-US government holdings are traded in a transparent and liquid market.

Corporate debt securities mainly include US and European investment-grade positions, which are priced on the basis of quotes provided by third-party pricing vendors and first utilise valuation inputs from actively traded securities, such as bid prices, bid spreads to Treasury securities, Treasury curves, and same or comparable issuer curves and spreads. Issuer spreads are determined from actual quotes and traded prices and incorporate considerations of credit/default, sector composition, and liquidity and call features. Where market data is not available, valuations are developed based on the modelling techniques that utilise observable inputs and option-adjusted spreads and incorporate considerations of the security’s seniority, maturity and the issuer’s corporate structure.

Values of mortgage- and asset-backed securities are obtained both from third-party pricing vendors and through quoted prices, some of which may be based on the prices of comparable securities with similar structural and collateral features. Values of certain asset-backed securities (ABS) for which there are no significant observable inputs are developed using benchmarks to similar transactions or indices. For both residential mortgage-backed securities (RMBS) and commercial mortgage-backed securities (CMBS), cash flows are derived based on the transaction-specific information, which incorporates priority in the capital structure, and are generally adjusted to reflect benchmark yields, market prepayment data, collateral performance (default rates and loss severity) for specific vintage and geography, credit enhancements, and ratings. For certain RMBS and CMBS with low levels of market liquidity, judgements may be required to determine comparable securities based on the loan type and deal-specific performance. CMBS terms may also incorporate lock-out periods that restrict borrowers from prepaying the loans or provide disincentives to prepay and therefore reduce prepayment risk of these securities, compared to RMBS. The factors specifically considered in valuation of CMBS include borrower-specific statistics in a specific region, such as debt service coverage and loan-to-value ratios, as well as the type of commercial property. Mortgage- and asset-backed securities also includes debt securitised by credit card, student loan and auto loan receivables. Pricing inputs for these securities also focus on capturing, where relevant, collateral quality and performance, payment patterns, and delinquencies.

The Group uses third-party pricing vendor data to value agency securitised products, which mainly include collateralised mortgage obligations (CMO) and mortgage-backed government agency securities. The valuations generally utilise observable inputs consistent with those noted above for RMBS and CMBS.

Equity securities held by the Group for proprietary investment purposes are mainly classified in level 1. Securities classified in level 1 are traded on public stock exchanges for which quoted prices are readily available.

The category “Other invested assets” includes the Group’s private equity and hedge fund investments which are made directly or via ownership of funds. Valuation of direct private equity investments requires significant management judgement due to the absence of quoted market prices and the lack of liquidity. Initial valuation is based on the acquisition cost, and is further refined based on the available market information for the public companies that are considered comparable to the Group’s holdings in the private companies being valued, and the private company-specific performance indicators; both historic and projected. Subsequent valuations also reflect business or asset appraisals, as well as market transaction data for private and public benchmark companies and the actual companies being valued, such as financing rounds and mergers and acquisitions activity. The Group’s holdings in private equity and hedge funds are generally valued utilising net asset values (NAV), subject to adjustments, as deemed necessary, for restrictions on redemption (lock-up periods and amount limitations on redemptions). These investments are included under investments measured at net asset value as a practical expedient.

The Group holds both exchange-traded and OTC interest rate, foreign exchange and equity derivative contracts for hedging and trading purposes. The fair values of exchange-traded derivatives measured using observable exchange prices are classified in level 1. Long-dated contracts may require adjustments to the exchange-traded prices which would trigger reclassification to level 2 in the fair value hierarchy. OTC derivatives are generally valued by the Group based on internal models, which are consistent with industry standards and practices, and use both observable (dealer, broker or market consensus prices, spot and forward rates, interest rate and credit curves and volatility indices) and unobservable inputs (adjustments for liquidity, inputs derived from the observable data based on the Group’s judgements and assumptions).

The Group’s OTC interest rate derivatives primarily include interest rate swaps, futures, options, caps and floors, and are valued based on the cash flow discounting models which generally utilise as inputs observable market yield curves and volatility assumptions.

The Group’s OTC foreign exchange derivatives primarily include forward, spot and option contracts and are generally valued based on the cash flow discounting models, utilising as main inputs observable foreign exchange forward curves.

The Group’s investments in equity derivatives primarily include OTC equity option contracts on single or baskets of market indices and equity options on individual or baskets of equity securities, which are valued using internally developed models (such as the Black-Scholes type option pricing model and various simulation models) calibrated with the inputs, which include underlying spot prices, dividend curves, volatility surfaces, yield curves, and correlations between underlying assets.

Governance around level 3 fair valuation

The Asset Valuation Committee, endorsed by the Group Executive Committee, has a primary responsibility for governing and overseeing all of the Group’s asset and derivative valuation policies and operating parameters (including level 3 measurements). The Asset Valuation Committee delegates the responsibility for implementation and oversight of consistent application of the Groupʼs pricing and valuation policies to the Pricing and Valuation Committee.

The Pricing and Valuation Committee, which is a joint Risk Management & Finance management control committee, is responsible for the implementation and consistent application of the pricing and valuation policies. Key functions of the Pricing and Valuation Committee include: oversight over the entire valuation process, approval of internal valuation methodologies, approval of external pricing vendors, monitoring of the independent price verification (IPV) process and resolution of significant or complex valuation issues.

A formal IPV process is undertaken monthly by members of the Valuation Risk Management team within the Financial Risk Management function. The process includes monitoring and in-depth analyses of approved pricing methodologies and valuations of the Group’s financial instruments aimed at identifying and resolving pricing discrepancies.

The Risk Management function is responsible for independent validation and ongoing review of the Group’s valuation models. The Product Control group within Finance is tasked with reporting of fair values through the vendor- and model-based valuations, the results of which are also subject to the IPV process.

Assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis

As of 31 December, the fair values of assets and liabilities measured on a recurring basis by level of input were as follows:

Download

2015
USD millions

Quoted prices in active markets for identical assets and liabilities (Level 1)

Significant other observable inputs (Level 2)

Significant unobservable inputs (Level 3)

Impact of netting1

Total

1

The netting of derivative receivables and derivative payables is permitted when a legally enforceable master netting agreement exists between two counterparties. A master netting agreement provides for the net settlement of all contracts, as well as cash collateral, through a single payment, in a single currency, in the event of default or on the termination of any one contract.

Assets

 

 

 

 

 

Fixed income securities held for proprietary investment purposes

12 900

69 038

393

 

82 331

Debt securities issued by US government and government agencies

12 900

1 922

 

 

14 822

US Agency securitised products

 

2 952

 

 

2 952

Debt securities issued by non-US governments and government agencies

 

27 877

 

 

27 877

Corporate debt securities

 

31 119

380

 

31 499

Mortgage- and asset-backed securities

 

5 168

13

 

5 181

Fixed income securities backing unit-linked and with-profit business

 

4 069

 

 

4 069

Equity securities held for proprietary investment purposes

4 753

 

34

 

4 787

Equity securities backing unit-linked and with-profit business

22 783

 

 

 

22 783

Short-term investments held for proprietary investment purposes

3 438

3 967

 

 

7 405

Short-term investments backing unit-linked and with-profit business

 

64

 

 

64

Derivative financial instruments

25

2 241

447

–1 953

760

Interest rate contracts

6

1 300

 

 

1 306

Foreign exchange contracts

 

318

 

 

318

Equity contracts

16

617

334

 

967

Credit contracts

 

1

1

 

2

Other contracts

3

5

112

 

120

Other invested assets

579

50

1 595

 

2 224

Funds held by ceding companies

 

245

 

 

245

Total assets at fair value

44 478

79 674

2 469

–1 953

124 668

 

 

 

 

 

 

Liabilities

 

 

 

 

 

Derivative financial instruments

–24

–1 574

–581

1 477

–702

Interest rate contracts

–5

–786

 

 

–791

Foreign exchange contracts

 

–201

 

 

–201

Equity contracts

–12

–582

–38

 

–632

Credit contracts

 

 

–19

 

–19

Other contracts

–7

–5

–524

 

–536

Liabilities for life and health policy benefits

 

 

–165

 

–165

Accrued expenses and other liabilities

–812

–2 524

 

 

–3 336

Total liabilities at fair value

–836

–4 098

–746

1 477

–4 203

Download

2016
USD millions

Quoted prices in active markets for identical assets and liabilities (Level 1)

Significant other observable inputs (Level 2)

Significant unobservable inputs (Level 3)

Impact of netting1

Invest­ments measured at net asset value as practical expedient

Total

1

The netting of derivative receivables and derivative payables is permitted when a legally enforceable master netting agreement exists between two counterparties. A master netting agreement provides for the net settlement of all contracts, as well as cash collateral, through a single payment, in a single currency, in the event of default or on the termination of any one contract.

Assets

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fixed income securities held for proprietary investment purposes

13 078

79 016

1 182

 

 

93 276

Debt securities issued by US government and government agencies

13 078

2 076

 

 

 

15 154

US Agency securitised products

 

3 423

 

 

 

3 423

Debt securities issued by non-US governments and government agencies

 

29 797

 

 

 

29 797

Corporate debt securities

 

38 625

1 175

 

 

39 800

Mortgage- and asset-backed securities

 

5 095

7

 

 

5 102

Fixed income securities backing unit-linked and with-profit business

 

5 153

 

 

 

5 153

Equity securities held for proprietary investment purposes

3 426

5

4

 

 

3 435

Equity securities backing unit-linked and with-profit business

25 807

 

 

 

 

25 807

Short-term investments held for proprietary investment purposes

5 409

5 500

 

 

 

10 909

Short-term investments backing unit-linked and with-profit business

 

6

 

 

 

6

Derivative financial instruments

30

2 310

461

–1 580

 

1 221

Interest rate contracts

14

1 044

 

 

 

1 058

Foreign exchange contracts

 

765

 

 

 

765

Equity contracts

4

433

341

 

 

778

Other contracts

 

5

120

 

 

125

Contracts backing unit-linked and with-profit business

12

63

 

 

 

75

Investment real estate

 

 

209

 

 

209

Other invested assets

266

183

496

 

937

1 882

Other investments backing unit-linked and with-profit business

 

42

 

 

 

42

Funds held by ceding companies

 

225

 

 

 

225

Total assets at fair value

48 016

92 440

2 352

–1 580

937

142 165

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Liabilities

 

 

 

 

 

 

Derivative financial instruments

–5

–1 941

–664

1 568

 

–1 042

Interest rate contracts

–3

–709

 

 

 

–712

Foreign exchange contracts

 

–591

 

 

 

–591

Equity contracts

–1

–569

–39

 

 

–609

Other contracts

 

–5

–625

 

 

–630

Contracts backing unit-linked and with-profit business

–1

–67

 

 

 

–68

Liabilities for life and health policy benefits

 

 

–144

 

 

–144

Accrued expenses and other liabilities

–384

–4 084

 

 

 

–4 468

Total liabilities at fair value

–389

–6 025

–808

1 568

 

–5 654

Assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis using significant unobservable inputs (level 3)

As of 31 December, the reconciliation of the fair values of assets and liabilities measured on a recurring basis using significant unobservable inputs was as follows:

Download

2015
USD millions

Fixed income securities

Equity securities

Derivative assets

Other invested assets

Total assets

Derivative liabilities

Liabilities for life and health policy benefits

Total liabilities

1

Transfers are recognised at the date of the event or change in circumstances that caused the transfer.

Assets and liabilities

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Balance as of 1 January

401

39

521

1 812

2 773

–757

–187

–944

Realised/unrealised gains/losses:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Included in net income

4

 

–12

–2

–10

190

22

212

Included in other comprehensive income

–14

–5

 

–42

–61

 

 

0

Purchases

31

 

30

156

217

 

 

0

Issuances

 

 

 

 

0

–90

 

–90

Sales

–47

 

–21

–380

–448

15

 

15

Settlements

–46

 

–79

 

–125

62

 

62

Transfers into level 31

65

 

8

70

143

–1

 

–1

Transfers out of level 31

 

 

 

 

0

 

 

0

Impact of foreign exchange movements

–1

 

 

–19

–20

 

 

0

Closing balance as of 31 December

393

34

447

1 595

2 469

–581

–165

–746

Download

2016
USD millions

Fixed income securities

Equity securities

Derivative assets

Investment
real estate

Other invested assets

Total assets

Derivative liabilities

Liabilities for life and health policy benefits

Total liabilities

1

Impact of ASU 2015–02 (Investment real estate and Derivative liabilities) and ASU 2015–07 (Other invested assets). Please refer to Note 1 for more details.

2

Transfers are recognised at the date of the event or change in circumstances that caused the transfer.

Assets and liabilities

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Balance as of 1 January

393

34

447

 

1 595

2 469

–581

–165

–746

Impact of Accounting Standards Updates1

 

 

 

274

–1 120

–846

–207

 

–207

Realised/unrealised gains/losses:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Included in net income

3

 

58

32

–20

73

188

20

208

Included in other comprehensive income

24

1

 

 

6

31

 

 

0

Purchases

577

 

2

 

43

622

4

 

4

Issuances

 

 

 

 

 

0

–141

 

–141

Sales

–37

 

–13

–59

–3

–112

101

 

101

Settlements

–59

 

–39

 

 

–98

–52

 

–52

Transfers into level 32

302

 

6

 

12

320

–5

 

–5

Transfers out of level 32

–6

–29

 

 

 

–35

 

 

0

Impact of foreign exchange movements

–15

–2

 

–38

–17

–72

29

1

30

Closing balance as of 31 December

1 182

4

461

209

496

2 352

–664

–144

–808

Gains and losses on assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis using significant unobservable inputs (level 3)

The gains and losses relating to the assets and liabilities measured at fair value using significant unobservable inputs (level 3) for the years ended 31 December were as follows:

Download

USD millions

2015

2016

Gains/losses included in net income for the period

202

281

Whereof change in unrealised gains/losses relating to assets and liabilities still held at the reporting date

–12

134

Quantitative information about level 3 fair value measurements

Unobservable inputs for major level 3 assets and liabilities as of 31 December were as follows:

Download

USD millions

2015
Fair value

2016
Fair value

Valuation technique

Unobservable input

Range (weighted average)

1

Represents average input value for the reporting period.

2

Heating Degree Days (HDD); Cumulative Average Temperature (CAT).

Assets

 

 

 

 

 

Corporate debt securities

380

1 175

 

 

 

Private placement corporate debt

241

506

Corporate Spread Matrix

Credit spread

62 bps–661 bps (181 bps)

Infrastructure loans

86

486

Discounted Cash Flow Model

Valuation spread

95 bps–242 bps (168 bps)

Private placement credit tenant leases

51

48

Discounted Cash Flow Model

Illiquidity premium

75 bps–175 bps (132 bps)

Derivative equity contracts

334

341

 

 

 

OTC equity option referencing correlated equity indices

334

341

Proprietary Option Model

Correlation

–45%–100% (27.5%)1

Investment real estate

 

209

Discounted Cash Flow Model

Discount rate

5% per annum

Liabilities

 

 

 

 

 

Derivative equity contracts

–38

–39

 

 

 

OTC equity option referencing correlated equity indices

–38

–39

Proprietary Option Model

Correlation

–45%–100% (27.5%)1

Other derivative contracts and liabilities for life and health policy benefits

–689

–769

 

 

 

Variable annuity and fair valued GMDB contracts

–567

–500

Discounted Cash Flow Model

Risk margin

4% (n.a.)

 

 

 

 

Volatility

4%–42%

 

 

 

 

Lapse

0.5%–33%

 

 

 

 

Mortality adjustment

–10%–0%

 

 

 

 

Withdrawal rate

0%–90%

Swap liability referencing real estate investments

 

–161

Discounted Cash Flow Model

Discount rate

5% per annum

Weather contracts

–82

–41

Proprietary Option Model

Risk Margin

8%–11% (9.7%)

 

 

 

 

Correlation

–59%–48% (–19.7%)

 

 

 

 

Volatility (power/gas)

23%–104% (43.4%)

 

 

 

 

Volatility (temperature)

87–386 (222) HDD/CAT2

 

 

 

 

Index value (temperature)

440–3890 (1896) HDD/CAT2

Sensitivity of recurring level 3 measurements to changes in unobservable inputs

The significant unobservable input used in the fair value measurement of the Group’s private placement corporate debt securities is credit spread. A significant increase (decrease) in this input in isolation would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement. The significant unobservable input used in the fair value measurement of the Group’s private placement credit tenant leases is illiquidity premium. A significant increase (decrease) in this input in isolation would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement. The significant unobservable input used in the fair value measurement of the Group’s infrastructure loans is valuation spread. A significant increase (decrease) in this input in isolation would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement.

The significant unobservable input used in the fair value measurement of the Group’s OTC equity option referencing correlated equity indices is correlation. Where the Group is long correlation risk, a significant increase (decrease) in this input in isolation would result in a significantly higher (lower) fair value measurement. Where the Group is short correlation risk, a significant increase (decrease) in this input in isolation would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement.

The significant unobservable input used in the fair value measurement of the Group’s investment real estate and swap liability referencing real estate investment is the rate used to discount future cash flows from property sales. A significant increase (decrease) in this input in isolation would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement.

The significant unobservable inputs used in the fair value measurement of the Group’s variable annuity and fair valued guaranteed minimum death benefit (GMDB) contracts are: risk margin, volatility, lapse, mortality adjustment rate and withdrawal rate. A significant increase (decrease) in isolation in each of the following inputs: risk margin, volatility and withdrawal rate would result in a significantly higher (lower) fair value of the Group’s obligation. A significant increase (decrease) in isolation in a lapse rate for in-the-money contracts would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value of the Group’s obligation, whereas for out-of-the-money contracts, an isolated increase (decrease) in a lapse assumption would increase (decrease) fair value of the Group’s obligation. Changes in the mortality adjustment rate impact the fair value of the Group’s obligation differently for living-benefit products, compared to death-benefit products. For the former, a significant increase (decrease) in the mortality adjustment rate (i.e. increase (decrease) in mortality, respectively) in isolation would result in a decrease (increase) in fair value of the Group’s liability. For the latter, a significant increase (decrease) in the mortality adjustment rate in isolation would result in an increase (decrease) in fair value of the Group’s liability.

The significant unobservable inputs used in the fair value measurement of the Group’s weather contracts are risk margin, correlation, volatility and index value. Where the Group has a long position, a significant increase (decrease) in the risk margin input in isolation would result in a significantly higher (lower) fair value measurement. Where the Group has a long volatility or correlation position, a significant increase (decrease) in the correlation and volatility inputs would result in a significantly higher (lower) fair value measurement. Where the Group has a long index position, an increase (decrease) in the index value input in isolation would result in a significantly higher (lower) fair value measurement. Where the Group has a short position, a significant increase (decrease) in the risk margin input in isolation would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement. Where the Group has a short volatility or correlation position a significant increase (decrease) in the correlation and volatility inputs would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement. Where the Group has a short index position, an increase (decrease) in the index value input in isolation would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement.

Other invested assets measured at net asset value

Other invested assets measured at net asset value as of 31 December were as follows:

Download

USD millions

2015 Fair value

2016 Fair value

Unfunded commitments

Redemption frequency
(if currently eligible)

Redemption notice period

1

The redemption frequency varies by position.

2

Cash distribution can be delayed for an extended period depending on the sale of the underlyings.

Private equity funds

686

562

125

non-redeemable

n.a.

Hedge funds

135

106

 

redeemable1

45‒95 days2

Private equity direct

121

80

 

non-redeemable

n.a.

Real estate funds

203

189

49

non-redeemable

n.a.

Total

1 145

937

174

 

 

The hedge fund investments employ a variety of strategies, including global macro, relative value, event-driven and long/short equity across various asset classes.

The private equity direct portfolio consists of equity and equity-like investments directly in other companies. These investments have no contractual term and are generally held based on financial or strategic intent.

Private equity and real estate funds generally have limitations imposed on the amount of redemptions from the fund during the redemption period due to illiquidity of the underlying investments. Fees may apply for redemptions or transferring of interest to other parties. Distributions are expected to be received from these funds as the underlying assets are liquidated over the life of the fund, which is generally from 10 to 12 years.

The redemption frequency of hedge funds varies depending on the manager as well as the nature of the underlying product. Additionally, certain funds may impose lock-up periods and redemption gates as defined in the terms of the individual investment agreement.

Fair value option

The fair value option under the Financial Instruments Topic permits the choice to measure specified financial assets and liabilities at fair value on an instrument-by-instrument basis. The Group elected the fair value option for positions in the following line items:

Other invested assets

The Group elected the fair value option for certain investments classified as equity method investees within other invested assets in the balance sheet. The Group applied the fair value option, as the investments are managed on a fair value basis. The changes in fair value of these elected investments are recorded in earnings.

Funds held by ceding companies

For operational efficiencies, the Group elected the fair value option for funds held by the cedent under three of its reinsurance agreements. The assets are carried at fair value and changes in fair value are reported as a component of earnings.

Other investments backing unit-linked and with-profit business

For operational efficiencies, the Group elected the fair value option for equity-linked deposits from one of its unit-linked businesses. The assets are carried at fair value and changes in fair value are reported as a component of earnings. In the balance sheet and the following fair value disclosures, this item is included under “Investments for unit-linked and with-profit business”.

Liabilities for life and health policy benefits

The Group elected the fair value option for existing GMDB reserves related to certain variable annuity contracts which are classified as universal life-type contracts. The Group has applied the fair value option, as the equity risk associated with those contracts is managed on a fair value basis and it is economically hedged with derivative options in the market.

Other derivative liabilities

For operational efficiencies, the Group elected the fair value option on a hybrid financial instrument, where the host contract is a debt instrument and the embedded derivative is pegged to the performance of the fund’s real estate portfolio. The liability is carried at fair value and changes in fair value are reported as a component of earnings. In the balance sheet and the following fair value disclosures, this item is included under “Accrued expenses and other liabilities”.

Assets and liabilities measured at fair value pursuant to election of the fair value option

Pursuant to the election of the fair value option for the items described, the balances as of 31 December were as follows:

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USD millions

2015

2016

Assets

 

 

Other invested assets

10 367

9 611

of which at fair value pursuant to the fair value option

449

442

Funds held by ceding companies

9 870

8 184

of which at fair value pursuant to the fair value option

245

225

Investments for unit-linked and with-profit business

 

32 178

of which at fair value pursuant to the fair value option

 

42

Liabilities

 

 

Liabilities for life and health policy benefits

–30 131

–41 176

of which at fair value pursuant to the fair value option

–165

–144

Accrued expenses and other liabilities

 

–9 811

of which at fair value pursuant to the fair value option

 

–161

Changes in fair values for items measured at fair value pursuant to election of the fair value option

Gains/losses included in earnings for items measured at fair value pursuant to election of the fair value option including foreign exchange impact for the years ended 31 December were as follows:

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USD millions

2015

2016

Other invested assets

–32

–19

Funds held by ceding companies

7

6

Investments for unit-linked and with-profit business

 

9

Liabilities for life and health policy benefits

21

20

Accrued expenses and other liabilities

 

17

Total

–4

33

Fair value changes from other invested assets and funds held by ceding companies are reported in “Net investment income – non-participating business”. Fair value changes from investments for unit-linked and with-profit business are reported in “Net investment result – unit-linked and with-profit”. Fair value changes from accrued expenses and other liabilities are reported in “Net realised investment gains/losses – non-participating business”. Fair value changes from the GMDB reserves are shown in “Life and health benefits”.

Assets and liabilities not measured at fair value but for which the fair value is disclosed

Assets and liabilities not measured at fair value but for which the fair value is disclosed as of 31 December, were as follows:

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2015
USD millions

Significant other observable inputs (Level 2)

Significant unobservable inputs (Level 3)

Total

Assets

 

 

 

Policy loans

 

91

91

Mortgage loans

 

1 946

1 946

Other loans

 

1 086

1 086

Investment real estate

 

3 211

3 211

Total assets

0

6 334

6 334

 

 

 

 

Liabilities

 

 

 

Debt

–8 681

–5 674

–14 355

Total liabilities

–8 681

–5 674

–14 355

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2016
USD millions

Significant other observable inputs (Level 2)

Significant unobservable inputs (Level 3)

Total

Assets

 

 

 

Policy loans

 

95

95

Mortgage loans

 

2 411

2 411

Other loans

 

1 202

1 202

Investment real estate

 

3 367

3 367

Total assets

0

7 075

7 075

 

 

 

 

Liabilities

 

 

 

Debt

–8 201

–4 938

–13 139

Total liabilities

–8 201

–4 938

–13 139

Policy loans, other loans and certain mortgage loans are classified as level 3 measurements, as they do not have an active exit market. Some of these positions need to be assessed in conjunction with the corresponding insurance business, whilst the fair value of some other positions do not differ materially from the carrying amount. Considering these circumstances for these positions, the Group presents the carrying amount as an approximation for the fair value. For certain commercial mortgage loans and infrastructure loans, which are included in mortgage loans and other loans respectively, the fair value can be estimated using discounted cash flow models which are based on discount curves and spread inputs that require management’s judgement.

Investments in real estate are fair valued primarily by external appraisers based on proprietary discounted cash flow models that incorporate applicable risk premium adjustments to discount yields and projected market rental income streams based on market-specific data. These fair value measurements are classified in level 3 in the fair value hierarchy.

Debt positions, which are fair valued based on executable broker quotes or based on the discounted cash flow method using observable inputs, are classified as level 2 measurements. Fair value of the majority of the Group’s level 3 debt positions is judged to approximate carrying value due to the highly tailored nature of the obligation and short-notice termination provisions.