The Group uses a variety of derivative financial instruments including swaps, options, forwards, credit derivatives and exchange-traded financial futures in its trading and hedging strategies, in line with the Group’s overall risk management strategy. The objectives include managing exposure to price, foreign currency and/or interest rate risk on planned or anticipated investment purchases, existing assets or liabilities, as well as locking in attractive investment conditions for future available funds.

The fair values represent the gross carrying value amounts at the reporting date for each class of derivative contract held or issued by the Group. The gross fair values are not an indication of credit risk, as many over-the-counter transactions are contracted and documented under ISDA master agreements or their equivalent. Management believes that such agreements provide for legally enforceable setoff in the event of default, which substantially reduces credit exposure.

Fair values and notional amounts of derivative financial instruments

As of 31 December, the fair values and notional amounts of the derivatives outstanding were as follows:

The notional amounts of derivative financial instruments give an indication of the Group’s volume of derivative activity. The fair value assets are included in “Other invested assets” and the fair value liabilities are included in “Accrued expenses and other liabilities”. The fair value amounts that were not offset were nil as of 31 December 2012 and 2013.

Non-hedging activities

The Group primarily uses derivative financial instruments for risk management and trading strategies. Gains and losses of derivative financial instruments not designated as hedging instruments are recorded in “Net realised investment gains/losses” in the income statement. For the years ended 31 December, the gains and losses of derivative financial instruments not designated as hedging instruments were as follows:

Hedging activities

The Group designates certain derivative financial instruments as hedging instruments. The designation of derivative financial instruments is primarily used for overall portfolio and risk management strategies. As of 31 December 2012 and 2013, the following hedging relationships were outstanding:

Fair value hedges

The Group enters into interest rate and foreign exchange swaps to reduce the exposure to interest rate and foreign exchange volatility for certain of its issued debt positions. These derivative instruments are designated as hedging instruments in qualifying fair value hedges. Gains and losses on derivative financial instruments designated as fair value hedging instruments are recorded in “Net realised investment gains/losses” in the income statement. For the years ended 31 December, the gains and losses attributable to the hedged risks were as follows:

Hedges of the net investment in foreign operations

The Group designates non-derivative monetary financial instruments as hedging the foreign currency exposure of its net investment in certain foreign operations.

For the years ended 31 December 2012 and 2013, the Group recorded an accumulated net unrealised foreign currency remeasurement gain of USD 220 million and a gain of USD 29 million, respectively, in shareholders’ equity. These offset translation gains and losses on the hedged net investment.

Maximum potential loss

In consideration of the rights of setoff and the qualifying master netting arrangements with various counterparties, the maximum potential loss as of 31 December 2012 and 2013 was approximately USD 3 463 million and USD 1 746 million, respectively. The maximum potential loss is based on the positive market replacement cost assuming non-performance of all counterparties, excluding cash collateral.

Credit risk-related contingent features

Certain derivative instruments held by the Group contain provisions that require its debt to maintain an investment-grade credit rating. If the Group’s credit rating were downgraded or no longer rated, the counterparties could request immediate payment, guarantee or an ongoing full overnight collateralisation on derivative instruments in net liability positions.

The total fair value of derivative financial instruments containing credit risk-related contingent features amounted to USD 1 446 million and USD 855 million as of 31 December 2012 and 2013, respectively. For derivative financial instruments containing credit risk-related contingent features, the Group posted collateral of USD 524 million and USD 303 million as of 31 December 2012 and 2013, respectively. In the event of a reduction of the Group’s credit rating to below investment grade, a fair value of USD 552 million additional collateral would have had to be posted as of 31 December 2013. The total equals the amount needed to settle the instruments immediately as of 31 December 2012 and 2013, respectively.

Credit derivatives written/sold

The Group writes/sells credit derivatives, including credit default swaps, credit spread options and credit index products, and total return swaps. The total return swaps, for which the Group assumes asset risk mainly of variable interest entities, qualify as guarantees under FASB ASC Topic 460. These activities are part of the Group’s overall portfolio and risk management strategies. The events that could require the Group to perform include bankruptcy, default, obligation acceleration or moratorium of the credit derivative’s underlying.

The following tables show the fair values and the maximum potential payout of the credit derivatives written/sold as of 31 December 2012 and 2013, categorised by the type of credit derivative and credit spreads, which were based on external market data. The fair values represent the gross carrying values, excluding the effects of netting under ISDA master agreements and cash collateral netting. The maximum potential payout is based on the notional values of the derivatives and represents the gross undiscounted future payments the Group would be required to make, assuming the default of all credit derivatives’ underlyings.

The fair values of the credit derivatives written/sold do not represent the Group’s effective net exposure as the ISDA master agreement and the cash collateral netting are excluded.

The Group has purchased protection to manage the performance/payment risks related to credit derivatives. As of 31 December 2012 and 2013, the total purchased credit protection based on notional values was USD 16 689 million and USD 2 061 million, respectively, of which USD 8 220 million and USD 514 million, respectively, were related to identical underlyings for which the Group sold credit protection. For tranched indexes and baskets, only matching tranches of the respective index were determined as identical. In addition to the purchased credit protection, the Group manages the performance/payment risks through a correlation hedge, which is established with non-identical offsetting positions.

The maximum potential payout is based on notional values of the credit derivatives. The Group enters into total return swaps mainly with variable interest entities which issue insurance-linked and credit-linked securities.

As of 31 December, the fair values and maximum potential payout of the written credit derivatives outstanding were as follows: